Lubricant Lifecycle Management - Part 1

When asked to describe a lubricant, people typically refer to its brand or product name. More precisely, a lubricant, whether it is an oil or grease, is a bundle of performance properties such as oxidative life, resistance to thermal or hydrolytic degradation, antiwear or antiscuffing characteristics and air and water separability. Required performance characteristics vary by application (Figure 1). When performance properties are compromised, the lubricant's ability to minimize friction, wear and corrosion, control heat and contamination and transmit force and motion in hydraulic systems deteriorates. To ensure machine reliability, the offending lubricant requires maintenance actions that are properly designed and executed. This article discusses how oil degrades, proactive ways to extend the lubricant's life and proper disposal methods once the oil has been changed. Changing Oil Contrary to popular belief, oil doesn't last forever. The lubricant in a machine must be changed or at least maintained; otherwise it will no longer possess the required performance properties to carry out the demands of the machine, application and operating environment. In some instances, the oil must be changed because the lubricant's base oil becomes degraded and is no longer fit for service. Oxidative, thermal and hydrolytic degradation will change the base oil's chemical and physical properties, which then alters the lubricant's performance properties. In other cases, the lubricant's additive package becomes depleted. Unfortunately, the lubricant may also become contaminated with foreign material that cannot easily be removed. Base Oil Degradation Oxidation. One of the most common forms of base oil degradation is oxidation. It occurs when oxygen reacts with the lubricant's base oil, which is typically a hydrocarbon. When the oil becomes oxidized, some hydrocarbon molecules are transformed into acid and sludge, which affect the performance properties of the oil. Some molecules are better equipped to resist oxidation than others. Therefore, some base oils have better oxidation stability than others. Oxygen is a necessary component for oxidation; consequently the degree to which the lubricant is aerated affects the oxidation rate. The presence of water and reactive metals, such as iron and copper, also influences the rate of oxidation. Oxidation-inhibiting additives sacrifice themselves to protect the base oil from oxidation. Thermal Degradation. Unlike oxidation, thermal degradation does not require oxygen to occur. Thermal failure takes place when the oil comes in contact with hot surfaces inside the machine, such as combustion or exhaust areas, or when coming in contact with compressed bubbles, such as in hydraulic systems. Thermal failure results in the loss of hydrogen, leaving carbon-rich particles behind in the form of sludge and deposits. Thermal failure does not produce acid, however it does produce deposits that affect the performance properties of the oil. In some cases, the hydrocarbon's carbon chain cracks into smaller subsets of itself, reducing the average molecular weight and the viscosity of the resultant molecules. Hydrolysis. Hydrolysis is the direct reaction of the base oil mixing with water, which permanently modifies the base oil's molecular structure. Ester-based lubricating oils, including dibasic acid ester, polyol ester and phosphate ester, are the most susceptible to hydrolysis. Esterification of alcohol and acid, the process that creates ester base oils, produces ester and water as its by-products. When exposed to water, esters readily hydrolyze back into alcohol and acid. Hydrolysis affects the performance properties of the base oils that utilize esters. Many lubricants and hydraulic fluids employ esters as their primary base oil component or as a co-base oil to improve the solubility and seal performance of highly refined mineral or synthetic oils. Pg17.gif Figure 1. Performance Requirements Additive Depletion Additives are formulated into the lubricant to enhance performance properties such as separability from air or water, and to suppress undesirable properties such as the tendency to form wax at low operating temperatures. Additives are also included to impart new properties such as reducing wear under boundary contact conditions. Over time, additives become depleted and the lubricant requires service to restore the performance properties. This can occur either in the form of an oil change, additive sweetening with a partial drain and fill or lubricant reclamation, where the lubricant is seemingly restored to like-new conditions. The rate at which additives deplete depends on the additive type as well as environmental conditions, particularly temperature and presence of water. Some additives condense and separate from the base oil at low temperature; therefore, the additive depletion rate increases as temperature increases. Many additives are susceptible to hydrolysis, and the presence of water usually damages the additive system. Numerous additive depletion mechanisms influence additives to varying degrees. Proactive Management of Lubricant Life Selecting Premium Base Oil One strategy for extending lubricant life is to select premium lubricants formulated with premium base oils, premium additive systems or a combination of both. The American Petroleum Institute (API) has provided a standard classification for base oils, called groupings, to summarize the quality of the oil. The API categories include Group I, II, III, IV and V oils. Groups I, II and III are mineral base oils refined to varying degrees. Group IV oils are specifically synthesized hydrocarbon base oils such as polyalphaolefin (PAO), the most common synthetic base oil. The API also indicates viscosity index (VI), percent saturated hydrocarbon and percent sulfur requirements for Groups I, II and III. Group V oils include everything not in Groups I, II, III or IV such as dibasic acid ester, polyol ester, poly glycol, phosphate ester and numerous other base oils that possess special properties. Due to the wide range of Group V base oils, specific requirements for this group have not been made. Viscosity Index The VI is an indication of the base oil's relative change in viscosity for a given change in temperature. A high VI is generally considered a favorable characteristic because lubricants with this quality are operable across a greater range of temperatures. Compared to a low VI base oil of the same viscosity grade, a high VI base oil has comparatively lower viscosity at cold start. Therefore, its flow characteristics are superior and it maintains a higher viscosity at full operating temperature, thus providing a thicker oil film to protect the oil. Group I has the lowest VI requirement and Group IV has the highest requirement set by the API, and Groups II and III fall in between. Group IV (PAO) base oils generally possess a higher VI than either Groups I, II or III. The VI of Group V base oils varies depending upon type. Unsaturated Hydrocarbons The percentage of unsaturated hydrocarbons in oil indicates the base oil's ability to resist oxidation and thermal failure. Base oil that has been highly refined to reduce or eliminate unsaturated molecules will resist oxidation and thermal failure more effectively than base oil with a comparatively high percentage of unsaturated hydrocarbon molecules. Group I base oils possess a higher percentage of unsaturated molecules than Groups II or III, which generally means that the oxidative and thermal life of Group III base oil is superior to Group II, which is superior to that of Group I. However, improving resistance to oxidative and thermal failure by refining the base oil to reduce or eliminate unsaturated hydrocarbons can have negative side effects. Base oils with a low percentage of unsaturated molecules have trouble dissolving additives and they tend to cause elastomer shrinkage. To counter this, many Group II, III and IV base oils are formulated with co-base oil, such as diester to polyol ester to improve additive solubility and offset seal shrinkage tendencies. Sulfur Sulfur occurs naturally in most mineral base oils. The API has designated maximum sulfur levels for Group I, II and III base oils, with Group I having a higher sulfur allowance than Groups II or III. Group IV PAO, which is a synthesized hydrocarbon, is sulfur-free. Surprisingly, sulfur improves the base oil's lubricity (the oil's ability to lubricate under boundary metal-to-metal contact conditions) and natural resistance to oxidation. In fact, sulfur is a component in many additive formulations, including antioxidants, antiwear (AW) agents and antiscuffing or extreme pressure (EP) agents. Why, then, is lower sulfur associated with higher base oil grades? Modern lubricant formulators prefer to control the chemical context where the sulfur resides in the finished lubricant. Therefore, they prefer to start with a base oil containing a low concentration of naturally occurring sulfur so it can be added back into the concentration and chemical form believed to be appropriate for the application. Synthetic Base Oil End users often presume that specifying a premium lubricant by definition means selecting a lubricant formulated with synthetic base oil. In some instances, synthetic base oil is appropriate, but not always. Synthetic base oil, depending on its type, offers several possible advantages (Table 1). However, not all synthetic base oils offer these properties and, moreover, they may not be required. For instance, high VI base oil isn't required for a machine which operates 24/7 at a constant temperature. Likewise, detrimental aspects associated with synthetic base oil must be considered. If you can't make the decision yourself, consult expert advice. Pg18.gif Table 1. Advantages and disadvantages of selecting synthetic base oils. All points may not apply to every synthetic base oil; therefore, it is recommended to seek professional advice when specifying synthetic lubricants. Additive Selection When selecting a premium lubricant, choosing a base oil is not the only decision an end user must make. A small number of providers supply additives to the lubricant formulators and marketers who then incorporate the additive technology into their products to achieve the desired performance characteristics for the targeted application. As one might conclude, not all additives are created equal. Some additive technologies are better or more modern than others and may be more costly. Additives may also be supplied as complete systems that need to be blended with the base oil to produce standard finished products to serve specific applications. However, many lubricant suppliers purchase additive components and formulate specialty lubricants that possess specific performance characteristics. These custom-formulated products are more expensive than standard products, which reflect the use of expensive additive components and the engineering required to formulate them. They are often blended in small batches due to their low demand and require special sales and application engineering services, adding further to the cost. Contrary to popular belief, specially formulated lubricants do not always employ synthetic base oil or highly refined mineral oils. Base oil selection contributes to the performance characteristics of the finished lubricant; however, the lubricant's performance characteristics depend on the base oil selection, additive selection and formulation engineering. A formulator may prefer to employ a Group I or II base oil to formulate a specialty or high-performance product. It is important to understand the required performance properties for the application and to match the performance characteristics of the finished lubricant accordingly. Lubricant Condition Control Regardless of the lubricant selected, the end user has a great deal of influence over the actual life of the lubricant by managing system contamination and refreshing the additive system. Contamination control is the easiest and most widely applicable method for extending lubricant life. Contamination includes all foreign and unwanted forms of matter and energy, including particles, moisture, heat, air, chemicals and radiation. Heat Heat is the lubricant's worst enemy. The oxidative life of a lubricant relative to temperature generally follows the Arrhenius Law; that the rate of a chemical reaction increases exponentially with the absolute temperature. A rule of thumb is that the oxidative life of oil is halved for every 10ºC increase in temperature. For example, if the oxidative life of the lubricant is 1,000 hours at 100ºC bulk oil temperature, a useful life of 500 hours could be projected at 110ºC, 250 hours at 120ºC and so forth. Managing temperature is critical to managing lubricant life. If a cool temperature cannot be maintained, a premium lubricant may be required. Bulk oil temperature (for example, tank or sump temperature) influences the rate of oxidation. However, transient contact with hot surfaces can result in thermal degradation, as previously discussed. Air Air is another factor that influences both the rate of oxidation and thermal degradation. It is the primary source of oxygen required in the oxidation process and all lubricants contain some dissolved and/or entrained air. Increasing the amount of dissolved and entrained air increases the rate of oxidation. The relationship is approximately one to one, so doubling the concentration of air roughly doubles the rate of oxidation. Hot compressed bubbles are also a primary cause for thermal failure, especially in high-pressure hydraulic machines. Managing air contamination should be an important component of any plan to extend lubricant life. Interfacial tension between the oil and air bubbles, which is influenced by both the base oil and additive system, determines how air can be entrained in the lubricant. Where interfacial tension is high, air bubbles dissipate and separate readily. Where interfacial tension is low, air is more readily entrained. Tank design and volume, lubricant delivery mechanism, and numerous other factors also influence the air contamination level. Moisture Moisture is the enemy of most lubricant components. It results in de-esterification of ester base oil components, reduces additives to acid and/or sludge and promotes base oil oxidation, especially in the presence of catalytic metals such as iron or copper. Water enters the machine where it interfaces with the environment, including contaminated new oil sources, breathers and vents, shaft seals, etc. Humid environments where the machine operates intermittently and where machines are subjected to water spray hold the highest risk. The best way to control water contamination is by using premium seals, desiccant or other water-excluding breathers. Dehydrating methods can also be employed to remove excess water. Particles The influence particles have on lubricant degradation depends on the particle type. Suspended particles can increase air entrainment, which indirectly increases the rate of oxidation. However, some particles may catalyze oxidation. The catalytic influence depends on the metallurgy and the presence of water. Silicon, which is the primary element found in the earth's crust, is not highly catalytic to lubricant oxidation. On the other hand, iron and copper, the primary elements found in machine metallurgy, are highly catalytic to lubricant oxidation. The degree to which iron and copper particles influence the oxidation rate depends on the presence of water. The water reacts with the metal, forming peroxides and free radicals, which causes oxidation. Fortunately, the ingress of particle contamination is typically managed in the same manner as water contamination because it enters at the points where the machine interfaces with the machine. Similar to water, particles should be excluded. Unfortunately, because the machine generates its own particles, removal is required to maintain material balance. Numerous particle removal devices are available for use in industry, most notably filters. Filter quality and the decision to incorporate other particle removal technologies is application-specific. Editor's Note An abridged version of this article called "Slick Lubrication Tips" was published in the February 2005 issue of Plant Services magazine. References 1. G. Trujillo, D. Troyer and J. Fitch. Machinery Lubrication Best Practices Course Book. Noria Corporation, Tulsa, Okla. 2004. 2. RCRA in Focus. EPA Web site www.epa.gov/osw. Retrieved 1999. 3. 40 CFR 279.22 - Used Oil Storage. EPA Web site http://ecfr1.access.gpo.gov. Retrieved February 2003. 4. M. Radhakrishnan. Hydraulic Fluids: A Guide to Selection, Test Methods and Use. New York: ASME Press, 2003. 5. 40 CFR 279.24 - Off-site Shipments. EPA Web site at http://ecfr1.access.gpo.gov. Retrieved February 2003. Machinery Lubrication (3/2007) http://www.machinerylubrication.com/Read/1010/lubricant-lifecycle-management

ASEAN's energy map

Photovoltaic technology could save the planet

2010-03-30 13:27
This is the 14th in a series of articles introducing the Korean government`s R&D policies. Researchers at the Science & Technology Policy Institute will explain Korea`s R&D initiatives aimed at addressing major socioeconomic problems facing the nation. - Ed.

By Yoo Eui-sun

If global warming continues on its present course, the temperature of the planet is projected to rise by 6.4 degrees Celsius by 2100. However, in order for the global community to effectively manage the risks caused by climate change, it needs to keep the temperature rise below 2 degrees Celsius by 2050. To achieve this goal, it is essential to step up our efforts to increase energy sustainability through a diffusion of solar energy technologies across the world. As the growth of the renewable energy sector is gathering pace, the number of green jobs is on the rise. This paper aims to present a brief overview of the current state and features of solar energy technology, which is crucial to tackle climate change, and to discuss the future outlook and challenges, with the focus on solar photovoltaic technology.

The technical solutions to mitigate the threats of climate change can be divided into the following three categories - energy efficiency, decarbonization and natural sink. PV technology belongs in the decarbonization category. Improving energy efficiency is considered a powerful solution in the short and mid-term. Decarbonization is seen as a mid- and long-term solution. In particular, decarbonization should be first applied to the electricity supply sector, since the marginal cost incurred from carbon emissions reduction is relatively low in this sector when compared to other fields.

The total amount of solar energy that hits the earth`s surface is more than 8,000 times the amount of energy consumed by all human activities. Despite its low energy conversion efficiency, solar energy technology is reckoned by many to have the greatest potential to serve as a viable alternative. Solar energy technology posts the fastest growth rate among other renewable energy technologies, with the annual growth rate of 70 percent from 2006-2008.

Solar energy technology paints a rosy picture in terms of reduction in greenhouse gas emissions and energy acquisition. Throughout the entire life cycle of solar cells, the greenhouse gas emission of PV is very low - in the range of 1/10 to 1/40 of that of electricity production by fossil fuels.

The cost per watt of PV technology is widely expected to achieve grid parity in 2015. Grid parity is the point at which renewable electricity is equal to or cheaper than grid power. The development of PV technologies, the economies of scale, and the optimization of solar cell production processes will contribute to the achievement of grid parity. Once grid parity is attained, it will encourage widespread proliferation of PV technologies.

PV technology is foreseen to experience a "double technology shift," where the first-generation technology shifts to the second-generation and to the third at the same time. Crystalline silicon solar cells represent the first-generation technology. Thin-film technology lies in the core of the second-generation technology, which aims to lower the cost by reducing previously-used silicon materials and replacing those materials with non-silicon materials. The third-generation technology pursues a "low-cost, high-efficiency" strategy, which aims to improve technology efficiency at a low cost.

The future direction of PV technologies will be determined by how the competition among the first-, second- and third-generation technologies proceeds in the future. From the mid-term perspective, we expect an intensification of competition between crystalline silicon technology, which is by far the predominant technology now, and thin-film technology, which is gradually increasing its market share. In the long run, competition between thin-film technology and the third generation technology will become the main issue.

The proliferation of renewable energy sources, including PV, is closely associated with the development of smart grid technologies. Substantial automation and intelligence in the smart grid will facilitate the realization of a renewables-driven grid including PV. Furthermore, smart buildings and vehicles will increase applications of PV.

In addition, the development of energy-storage technologies complements the intermittent surges of electricity supply by PV cells, thereby facilitating the expansion of the PV markets. In this regard, the "ubiquitous energy storage" technology, which permits energy to be saved anytime, anywhere, is required. In the meantime, with the proliferation of hybrid and electric cars, it is likely that plug-in car batteries become a practical storage options.

Germany, Japan and the United States are the biggest players in the PV technology industry, with China rapidly catching up. Germany achieved rapid growth in this field by introducing a "feed-in tariff" system at an early stage. Japan has led the pack in terms of solar cell manufacturing and accumulated installation capacity, but has recently witnessed a slowdown in its growth rate.

China`s production volume of PV cells has recently skyrocketed. If combined with Taiwan`s output, China accounted for 44 percent of the global PV market in 2008. Korea also has great potential for future development of PV technology, taking into consideration its top-notch semiconductor and nano technologies.

Let me suggest some of the technical and policy-level agenda to speed up the diffusion of PV technologies. First, it is necessary to improve performance and economic efficiency of the first- and second-generation technologies in addition to the continuous development of next-generation technologies. We need to focus on improving efficiency of crystalline silicon solar cells (first-generation) while reducing the input of resources. Also, it is necessary to increase the efficiency and lifespan of thin-film solar cells (second-generation).

Furthermore, Korea needs to develop a variety of advanced new models for third-generation PVs. To this end, it is necessary to develop PVs with advanced new materials and structures (ex: nanomaterials), highly-efficient dye-sensitized solar cells and organic solar cells, as well as solar concentrator technologies. Another urgent task ahead of us is to develop super-efficient solar cells (an efficiency of over 40 percent) and ultra low-cost cells. Under these circumstances, Korea should focus on expanding research and development in the second- and third-generation technologies in the mid- and long-run.

Second, complementary research and development to support the proliferation of PV technologies needs to be further strengthened. We need to prioritize improving solar cell`s capability to be integrated into the structure of buildings. In addition, we need to promote R&D to complement possible drawbacks of PV technologies and to expand their applicability by using ubiquitous energy saving, smart grid, smart green buildings and smart transport technologies. We need to enhance our cross-sectional research in the areas which penetrates overall PV technologies, such as performance measurement standard.

Third, we need to promote "solar city," "solar fund," and "solar knowledge" projects to advance toward the "tipping point" for PV. Under the existing and dominant "high carbon society" paradigm, it is necessary to put in place a sustainable and effective incentive mechanism offsetting the disadvantages of solar-cell introduction. One solution is continuing the "feed-in tariff" system, while gradually scaling back financial support from the government, or introducing a "renewable portfolio standard." The RPS mechanism generally requires electricity supply companies to produce a specified fraction of their electricity from renewable energy sources.

In addition, the "solar city" program needs to be implemented at an early date. A pilot program to build a "carbon-zero eco-city" and eco-remodeling programs for old cities are other options. These programs will make use of PV in their design.

We need to focus on the possibility of promoting the proliferation of "green buildings" built on PV technologies. We can push programs to build 1 million green homes, develop green buildings standards and provide various incentives for those who over-achieve them.

In addition, an optimal solution for incorporating the PV system into the structure of buildings needs to be explored, taking into account the requirements of construction technologies. Moreover, we need to set up a "solar fund," an investment vehicle mobilizing public and private R&D capital to support the development of new third-generation PV technologies. Also, ensuring social and ecological sustainability of PV technologies should not be neglected.

Ecological effect assessments on PV technologies need to be carried out to minimize the adverse impact of new technologies on our ecosystem. It is also essential to revitalize "solar knowledge flow" by developing a database for the PV technology application process and materials, or sharing information and experience on the best practices for PV applications.

Fourth, strengthening cooperation among nations is required in setting international standards for PV technologies. To this end, it is necessary to establish a technology cooperation mechanism which supports the application and manufacturing of solar cells in developing nations.

At the same time, we need to actively pursue close international cooperation in carrying out R&D in next-generation PV technologies, while encouraging active participation of advanced nations. We also need to work closely together to come up with a performance measurement standard for PV modules and systems.

Fifth, launching the cross-Asian "Super Grid Initiative" needs to be reviewed. As in case of Europe, we need to expand the deployment of our solar energy technologies on a large scale to other parts of Asia, moving beyond our territorial boundaries. In the mid and long term, the "Super Grid Initiative" linking Mongolia, China and India is worth our consideration. The main purpose of this initiative is to strengthen international cooperation in jointly developing and using the solar energy abundant in Asian deserts or tropical regions.

Yoo Eui-sun is associate research fellow at the Future Study Team of the Science and Technology Policy Institute in Seoul. His research interest is climate change, sustainable development, environmental technology and policy, and foresight. He is now working to develop a "green index" to systematically assess the realization of a low-carbon society. He achieved his Ph.D. in environmental engineering at Technical University of Berlin. He can be reached via email at esyoo@stepi.re.kr - Ed.

Developing green economy necessary, achievable

English.news.cn 2010-08-16 20:10:05

by Zhang Xiaojun, Liu Ying and Liu Zan

BEIJING, Aug. 16 (Xinhua) -- Developing a green economy based on sustainable development is necessary for our world that is short of energy.

While many have suspected that the financial crisis will discourage the costly green projects, more countries are committed to continued investment in the sector.

Oil-rich Gulf countries and fast-growing Asian economies are likely to continue to invest on renewable energy.

Western powers also pledged to increase their green spending despite the looming budget squeeze.

U.S. President Barack Obama, who has long said renewable energy sources will play a vital role in the nation's future, has asked the Congress for 9 billion U.S. dollars in loan guarantees for renewable energy projects.

Analysts say global spending on the green economy has bounced back and is likely to exceed 2008 levels and reach 200 billion dollars in 2010.

What motives these governments to invest boldly in green economy is obvious -- whoever builds the first efficient and effective economy will lead the global economy in this century.

U.N. Secretary General Ban Ki-moon said striving for the green economy is "an ambitious goal, but it is achievable and is necessary."

The question is, how can we reach this goal?

The governments should focus on at least two areas: developing renewable energy and improving energy efficiency.

Renewable energy, which comes from natural resources such as sunlight, wind and tides, has its pros and cons.

On the one hand, it has great potential. For instance, solar power can provide as much as 1000 times the total world energy consumption in 2008, but only 0.02 percent of the total energy consumption that year came from the Sun.

But the return from investment on renewable energy would not be seen in short term. For example, although the commercialization of solar cells started almost 50 years ago, solar power still cannot compete in the market with fossil fuels that generate electricity more cheaply.

For quick benefits, improving energy efficiency is a good choice. The governments may urge enterprises and individuals to improve building insulation or replace obsolete heating and cooling equipments.

Besides, long-term projects can also be carried out in an effort to develop green economy.

Fossil fuels, which produce considerable greenhouse gases, remain the stable sources of electricity in the foreseeable future. The International Energy Agency predicts that the demand for coal will increase 53 percent between 2007 and 2030.

Some governments began to support the development of carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) demonstration projects to reduce the effects of fossil fuel emissions on global warming. The idea is to make coal burn cleanly by injecting millions of tons of carbon dioxide into the ground.

From a historical perspective, Germany has set a good example in developing green economy. It has not only lowered its dependence on fossil fuels, but also created a new economic engine, which is cleaner and provides more jobs.

Since the oil crisis in the 1970s, Germany has begun to cut energy consumption and look for alternative resources. In 1986, Germany set up a federal ministry to regulate issues on environment and energy policy. In 1991, Germany introduced feed-in tariff to further support the development and use of renewable energy technologies.

Consequently, by 2008, renewable energy sources have accounted for 15.1 percent of total German power consumption and helped cut greenhouse gas emission by 112 million tons. It employed over 280,000 people and had a turnover of 30 billion euros (38.2 billion dollars).

The seven habits of highly efficient companies

Leading firms that give greater attention to energy efficiency report billions of dollars in savings and millions of tons of avoided greenhouse gas emissions, according to the new report 'From Shop Floor to Top Floor: Best Business Practices in Energy Efficiency' from the Pew Center on Global Climate Change.

This report stems from a historic shift in business leaders' perceptions of energy and climate change
issues. In the last decade, rising and volatile energy prices have converged with increasing concern about climate change and growing consumer support for action on energy and environmental issues to drive a surge of corporate environmental commitments. As companies have begun to act on these commitments, energy efficiency has emerged as a first-priority strategy. Accordingly, many companies have launched aggressive efficiency strategies, in many cases well beyond the scope and reach of earlier efforts.

This report documents these leading-edge energy efficiency strategies, distilling the best practices and providing guidance and resources for other businesses choosing this path. It was developed over nearly two years of effort from Pew Center on Global Climate Change staff, a project advisory committee, members of the Pew Center's Business Environmental Leadership Council (BELC),1 project consultants, and report authors.

The project encompassed a detailed survey of BELC members and other leading companies, in-depth case studies of six companies, a series of workshops on key energy efficiency topics, broader research in the corporate energy field, and development of a full-featured web portal to provide a platform for highlighting and updating key findings from the project as well as providing tools, resources, and other important information. The report covers efficiency strategies encompassing internal operations, supply chains, products and services, and cross-cutting issues.

A key finding from this report is that climate change has reframed corporate energy strategies. Companies that take on carbon footp inting and reduction strategies quickly come to see their energy use in a whole new light. On average, companies surveyed for this study reported spending less than five percent of total revenues on energy-even in today's relatively high cost energy environment.

But when these companies calculate their carbon footprint, they typically find that their energy consumption accounts for the great majority of their directly measurable emissions impact. Suddenly, energy shifts from a small cost item to the biggest piece of their carbon footprint. Viewed from this perspective, energy efficiency becomes a sustainability2 imperative.

The report was released at the energy efficiency conference in Chicago, which addressed key report findings, including The Seven Habits of Highly Efficient Companies.

These seven habits distill the elements of an exemplary corporate energy efficiency strategy into a set of core practices and principles. These are:

1. Efficiency is a core strategy, and not just another sustainability 'box' to check;
2. Leadership and organizational support is real and sustained, all the way up to the CEO;
3. The company sets ambitious energy savings goals, and has a clear plan for how to meet them;
4. The strategy runs on a robust tracking and performance measurement system that allows decision makers to quickly identify problem areas and take corrective action;
5. The organization puts substantial and sustained resources into efficiency;
6. The energy efficiency strategy shows demonstrated results, meeting or beating prescribed energy savings targets;
7. The company communicates energy efficiency results as part of the core 'stories' the company tells.

To read the full report and six in-depth case studies, visit here.